Military Campaigns

The chronology for the reign of Sargon and the dating of his various campaigns is based for the most part upon the Assyrian Eponym Chronicle, a Babylonian chronicle, and statements in his royal inscriptions assigning campaigns to particular regnal years (palû).^[95] It must be noted that the dating of the campaigns in the Khorsabad Annals (in particular text nos. 1–4) and the Najafabad Stele (text no. 117) is different to that in the Aššur Prism (text no. 63), the Nineveh Prism (text no. 82), and a tablet fragment (text no. 102), with the former sources in general citing the campaigns one regnal year later than the latter and with the former's assignments better fitting the information found in the Assyrian Eponym Chronicle and Babylonian chronicle than does that of the latter.^[96]

According to his annals, at the beginning of his reign Sargon defeated the city Samaria, deported a large number of its inhabitants, and then resettled the city and annexed it to Assyria proper, appointing one of his eunuchs as governor. Exactly when Samaria fell to the Assyrians — whether in the time of Shalmaneser V or Sargon II — and how many campaigns there were against Samaria have been matters of intense scholarly discussion and will not be treated here.^[97] However, it is quite reasonable to assume that the deportation of the Israelites occurred at least in part during the reign of Sargon. Several actions carried out early in his reign may have been intended to reverse actions taken by his predecessor and set his own stamp on affairs. Among these may be the reopening of trade with Egypt and the reinstallation of Ḫullî as ruler of Tabal.^[98]

During his first regnal year (721) Sargon does not appear to have carried out a major military campaign, likely because he needed to remain in the Assyrian heartland and consolidate his hold on the throne.^[99] In Babylonia, the Chaldean Marduk-apla-iddina (II) used the uncertainty in Assyria to ascend the throne in Babylon and regain Babylonia's independence that had been lost in the time of Tiglath-pileser III.^[100] The Khorsabad Annals do attribute two military actions to Sargon's first regnal year (721), a battle against the Elamites at Dēr and an action against the Aramean Tu'umuna tribe, who lived in northern Babylonia.^[101] However, the Aššur Charter (text no. 89 lines 16–17a) and the Babylonian Chronicle state that the battle at Dēr actually took place in his second regnal year (720), and it is possible that the Tu'umuna were attacked in connection with that battle. The Assyrians had presumably moved south to deal with Marduk-apla-iddina's rebellion in Babylonia and were opposed by the latter's Elamite allies led by Ummanigaš (Ḫumban-nikaš I). The composer(s) of the annals may not have wanted to suggest that Sargon had been dilatory in dealing with Marduk-apla-iddina's rebellion in Babylonia and thus ascribed the battle to the previous year. According to the Babylonian chronicle the Elamite king inflicted a major defeat upon the Assyrians and forced them to retreat. Marduk-apla-iddina (II) and his troops are said to have arrived too late for the battle. Although Assyrian inscriptions state that the battle resulted in an Assyrian victory, it was clearly at best a stalemate since Babylonia remained independent for ten more years.^[102] Interestingly, Marduk-apla-iddina, whose army does not appear to have taken part in the battle, seems to claim for himself the victory over the Assyrians in one of his inscriptions.^[103]

During Sargon's second regnal year (720), the Assyrians did put down a rebellion at Qarqar in the west led by Ilu-bi'dī (Iaū-bi'dī) of Hamath, who had incited the important cities of Arpad, Ṣimirra, Damascus, and Samaria against Assyria. Ḫanūnu (Ḫanno), the vassal ruler of Gaza, made an alliance with Egypt and also rebelled against Assyria. Their forces were defeated at the city Raphia (modern Rafaḥ). The Egyptian commander, Rē'e, fled and Raphia was looted and then demolished.^[105]

The campaigns in Sargon's third and fourth regnal years (719 and 718) were directed at the east and northwest respectively. In 719, he provided help to the Mannean ruler Iranzi. Two of the latter's cities had allied with Mitatti of the land Zikirtu and rebelled. In addition to demolishing the two cities, Sargon deported people from three other cities that had allied with the Urarṭian king Rusâ.^[106] In the northwest, the various cities and states were under pressure from both Musku (Phrygia) and Urarṭu to oppose Assyria. Because Kiakki, king of the city Šinuḫtu in the land Tabal, had allied with Mitâ of Musku and withheld his tribute, in 718 Sargon devastated his city, took him and his family captive, and granted the city to Kurtî of the land Atuna.^[107]

In Sargon's fifth regnal year (717), campaigns were directed both to the northwest and to the east. Pisīris of Carchemish attempted to ally with Mitâ of Musku and rebelled, but was defeated. Assyrians were settled in Carchemish and the yoke of the god Aššur imposed on them. People of the Mannean cities Papa and Lallukna who had allied with the land Kakmê against Assyria were deported and resettled in Damascus.^[108] One version of a Babylonian chronicle has an entry for 717 stating that someone or some country, likely Sargon or Assyria, was hostile to the Babylonian king Marduk-apla-iddina (II) from his accession year until his tenth year, i.e., from 722 until 712. Another version of the chronicle puts this entry in the following year, the sixth regnal year (716). It is not clear why such a statement would be recorded under the fifth or sixth regnal year and not earlier, at the time Marduk-apla-iddina took control of Babylon, or why it refers to the hostility ending in 712 when Sargon invaded Babylonia in 710.

The campaigns in Sargon's sixth through ninth regnal years (716–713) were mainly directed to the north and east, against the Urarṭian ruler Rusâ and his allies. Rusâ had presumably been involved in the overthrow and murder of Azâ, the king of Mannea, by two of the latter's governors, and with the appointment of Aza's brother Ullusunu to be the new ruler of Mannea. In 716, Sargon defeated those two Mannean governors and, as a result, Ullusunu submitted to Sargon and was left in office. Sargon also dealt with Aššur-lē'i of Karalla and Ittî of Allabria, the rulers of two lands to the south of Mannea, who had listened to Ullusunu and also allied with Rusâ. The cities Kišesim and Ḫarḫar were annexed to Assyria and renamed Kār-Nergal and Kār-Šarrukīn respectively. At this time, Sargon claims to have received tribute from twenty-eight city lords of the powerful Medes.^[109] The Assyrians erected the Najafabad Stele (text no. 117) during the course this campaign in order to commemorate it. In the same year, some action may have taken place in the Palestinian area. Although nothing about this is reported in the Khorsabad Annals for that year, the end of the account for the year in the Aššur and Nineveh Prism inscriptions refers to people being settled near the Brook of Egypt under the authority of the sheikh of Laban and to the king of Egypt Šilkanni bringing an audience gift to Sargon.^[110]

In 715, Sargon's seventh regnal year, twenty-two Mannean fortresses that Rusâ had seized from Ullusunu were recovered and annexed to Assyria. Dayukku, a Mannean governor who had been incited to rebel against Ullusunu by Rusâ, was captured and deported. Various other places in the lands on the borders of Urarṭu, including in the land Andia, were conquered. Sargon claims to have erected an image of himself in the Mannean capital Izirtu and to have received tribute from twenty-two Median city rulers. According to Sargon's Annals, in the same year the Assyrians also defeated some Ionians who had been raiding Que (Cilicia) and Tyre, recovered several cities of Que that the Muskian Mitâ had taken away, and defeated some Arab tribes who lived in the desert, resettling them in Samaria; these campaigns were likely led by Assyrian officials and not by the king himself. Sargon then boasts of having received tribute from the Egyptian Pir'û (i.e., pharaoh), the Arabian queen Samsi, and It'amar, the ruler of the land of the Sabaeans.^[111] According to the Assyrian Eponym Chronicle, provincial governors were appointed in this year, but nothing further is known about that action or if it was connected to Assyrian campaigns in some way.

In Sargon's eighth regnal year (714), he conducted his best documented campaign, heading east into the Zagros, traversing Mannea, defeating Mitatti of Zikirtu, and then proceeding north into Urarṭu itself, where he defeated the Urarṭian king Rusâ on Mount Uauš. While he may or may not have gone all the way around Lake Urmia during the course of the campaign, he certainly claims to have ravaged several Urarṭian districts. On the way home, and in response to omens, he marched to the religious center Muṣaṣir, and then captured and thoroughly looted it, making its ruler Urzana flee in order to save his life. Details of this campaign were reported to the god Aššur in a formal letter (text no. 65).^[112]

In the following year (713), Sargon continued to consolidate his rule in the Zagros region, campaigning in Ellipi, Media, and Karalla, receiving tribute from the rulers of Mannea, Ellipi, and Allabria, as well as forty-five Median city rulers, and annexing the land Ḫabḫu. Although it is not mentioned in any royal inscription, Assyrian forces presumably also attacked Muṣaṣir during this campaign since the Assyrian Eponym Chronicle states "[again]st the city Muṣaṣir" as part of its entry for 713.^[113] In the same year, Ambaris, king of Bīt-Purutaš in the land Tabal, an individual who had been granted the great honor of receiving a daughter of Sargon's in marriage, allied with the kings of Urarṭu and Musku, Rusâ and Mitâ, as well as with rulers of other principalities within Tabal, and rebelled. Assyrian troops that were presumably led by local governors defeated him. Ambaris and his family were carried off to Assyria, and the area was resettled and annexed to Assyria. Kurtî, the ruler of Atuna, to whom Sargon had given the city Šinuḫtu during his fourth campaign (719), had apparently joined the rebellion, trusting in the support of Mitâ; however, learning of the defeat of Ambaris, he immediately submitted to Sargon.^[114]

According to the Assyrian Eponym Chronicle, in Sargon's tenth regnal year (712) the king remained in the land (i.e., Assyria). Sargon's Khorsabad Annals, however, recount a campaign (presumably not led by the king himself) to the northwest against Tarḫun-azi of the city Melid and the land Kammanu, whom Sargon had made ruler instead of Gunzinānu in the past but who had allied with Mitâ of Musku against Assyria. Melid and the city of Til-Garimme were captured, and Tarḫun-azi and his family were taken prisoner to Assyria. The area was annexed to Assyria and Til-Garimme was resettled with people from other lands. Several cities in the region were strengthened in order to defend against Urarṭian and Muskian actions and the city Melid was given to Mutallu of the land Kummuḫu.^[115] Sargon's Annals describe the rich metallic resources found in the region that were brought to his new capital Dūr-Šarrukīn.^[116]

In the following year, Sargon's eleventh regnal year (711), Assyrian attention was again drawn to the northwest and west. Tarḫu-lara of the land Gurgum, who had been defeated by Tiglath-pileser III and made an Assyrian vassal, was killed by his own son Mutallu. The Assyrians marched to Gurgum's capital Marqasa and carried off Mutallu and his family as booty. According to the Khorsabad Annals, Gurgum was then annexed to Assyria, but two other inscription of Sargon's state that that had happened earlier in his reign.^[117] Desirous of no longer having to send tribute to Assyria, Azūri, the ruler of Ashdod, had rebelled against Assyria and sought to win support from other vassal rulers in the area (kings of Philistia, Judah, Edom, and Moab) and from the Egyptian pharaoh. Because of this, Sargon had removed him from the throne and made his brother Aḫī-Mīti the new ruler. The latter, however, was deposed by the inhabitants of the city and replaced by Iāmānī (or Iadna). Assyrian troops moved south, and hearing of this, Iāmānī fled to Egypt for refuge. Ashdod, as well as the nearby cities of Gath and Ashdod-Yam, were captured by the Assyrians, looted, and annexed to Assyria.^[118]

The campaigns during Sargon's twelfth and thirteenth regnal years (710–709) were concentrated on the south, to deal with the Chaldean Marduk-apla-iddina (II) (Merodach-baladan) and to recover Babylonia for the Assyrian empire. According to the Assyrian Eponym Chronicle, the campaign in the twelfth regnal year (710) was against Bīt-zēri (location unknown), with the king staying in Kish and then taking the hand of Bēl (Marduk) in the New Year's festival (at Babylon) at the beginning of his thirteenth regnal year (709). According to the Babylonian Chronicle, in the former year, Sargon invaded Babylonia and did battle with Marduk-apla-iddina, causing the latter to flee to Elam, and in the latter year, Sargon took the hand of Bēl and captured Marduk-apla-iddina's tribal capital Dūr-Yakīn. The Khorsabad Annals provide much additional information on the conquest of Babylonia. They inform us that in 710 Sargon began his campaign by first dealing with the Arameans living east of the Tigris. Marduk-apla-iddina had strengthened Dūr-Abi-ḫāra in the area of the Gambulu tribe against the Assyrian forces, but Sargon took that fortress, defeated several other Aramean tribes in the area, and annexed the region. Beginning the campaign in this area had the advantage of cutting off Babylonia's easiest access to Elam, from whose ruler Marduk-apla-iddina had hoped to receive aid in opposing the Assyrians. When the Elamite king Šutur-Naḫūndi (Šutruk-Naḫḫunte II) refused to send military support, Marduk-apla-iddina fled from Babylon, going first to Iqbi-Bēl and then to Dūr-Yakīn, his tribal stronghold in the southern marshes. As a result, Sargon was supposedly welcomed into Babylon and Borsippa. He ascended the throne of Babylon, taking the role of the king of Babylon in the New Year's festival at the beginning of the following year (709). Thus, 709 was his first regnal year as king of Babylonia and his thirteenth as king of Assyria. He then proceeded to besiege Marduk-apla-iddina in Dūr-Yakīn. Although Sargon took the city, Marduk-apla-iddina managed to flee and take refuge in Elam.^[119] Hearing of Sargon's military successes, Upēri and later Aḫundāra, kings of Dilmun in the Persian Gulf, sent him gifts in order to win his favor.^[120] It was likely at some point after he ascended the throne of Babylon that Sargon granted special privileges to numerous Babylonian cities, likely in an attempt to win their support.^[121]

Sargon remained in Babylonia until his fifteenth regnal year (707), when he returned to Assyria. According to Sargon's annals, while he was occupied in Babylonia, the governor of the land Que invaded the territory of Mitâ of Musku three times, capturing and demolishing two fortresses. As a result of these actions, and learning of Sargon's military successes in Babylonia, Mitâ sent gifts to Sargon and offered submission to him.^[122] At about the same time, the ruler of Tyre, Silṭa, appears to have requested aid from Sargon to put down a rebellion in Yadnana (Cyprus). An Assyrian official with a military contingent (perhaps just a military escort) was provided to him and as a result the rebels became afraid and brought presents to Sargon in Babylon. It was undoubtedly in connection with this episode that the stele of Sargon found on Cyprus (text no. 103) was sent or created there.^[123]

While Sargon remained in Babylonia, Mutallu of the city Kummuḫu, to whom Sargon had given the city Melid in his tenth regnal year (712), rebelled, putting his trust in the Urarṭian king Argišti (II), who had ascended the throne following the suicide of his father Rusâ, an event which likely took place in 713. However, when he heard of the advance of an Assyrian army led by Assyrian officials in 708, Mutallu fled. His city was looted and his family taken prisoner to Assyria. Sargon annexed the area and resettled there some of the people whom he had captured in Bīt-Yakīn.^[124]

Sargon returned to Assyria from Babylon in his fifteenth regnal year (707) and in that year Dūr-Yakīn was looted by Sargon's officials and destroyed according to the Assyrian Eponym Chronicle. A Babylonian chronicle informs us that there was plague in Assyria in that year and that the gods of the Sealand returned to their shrines. It was likely in that same year or the preceding one that Daltâ, the king of Ellipi whom Sargon had confirmed as ruler of that land in 713, died. Two of his nephews fought over the kingship, with one, Nibê, seeking aid from the Elamite king, and the other, Ašpa-bara, turning to Sargon. Assyrian officials led an army to help Ašpa-bara and captured Nibê, ending the dispute.^[125] About the same time, Šapataku' (Shebitko), the Nubian ruler (king of Meluḫḫa) of Egypt's Twenty-Fifth Dynasty, extradited Iāmānī to Assyria; Iāmānī had briefly seized the throne of Ashdod and then fled to Egypt, away from Assyrian troops, in 711.^[126]

In his sixteenth regnal year (706), Sargon again did not lead any campaign, staying in Assyria, where the inauguration of his new capital Dūr-Šarrukīn took place. Officials of his, however, campaigned against Karalla in the central Zagros and subdued it. This was the third time that the Assyrians had had to campaign in that region, the earlier campaigns being in Sargon's sixth and ninth regnal years (716 and 713). The campaign is briefly mentioned in the Assyrian Eponym Chronicle, but an Assyrian rock relief and inscription in the central Zagros at Tang-i Var commemorate the campaign (text no. 116).^[127]

Sargon campaigned for a last time in his seventeenth regnal year (705). A Babylonian chronicle appears to state that he marched to the land Tabal. The Assyrian Eponym Chronicle informs us that he fought Gurdî, the Kulummian,^[128] and was killed, but no details about the battle are given beyond the statement that the enemy seized the Assyrian camp. A later text informs us that Sargon's body was not recovered (see below).^[129]

Notes

95 Translations of the relevant sections of the Assyrian Eponym Chronicle and the Babylonian chronicle that deal with the reign of Sargon are found at the end of this chapter. For good overviews of Sargon's campaigns, see Fuchs, RLA 12/1–2 (2009) pp. 53–58 and PNA 3/2 pp. 1240–1244. The recent books by F. Maniori (Campagne di Sargon), S. Melville (Campaigns of Sargon) and J. Elayi (Sargon II) present more detailed studies of these campaigns. Note also G.B. Lanfranchi's article on Sargon's foreign policy in CRRA 39 pp. 81–87, T. Dezsö's article on Sargon's army (SAAB 15 [2006] pp. 93–140), S. Ponchia's study of mountain routes in Sargon's campaigns (SAAB 15 [2006] pp. 231–245), and A. Bagg's study of Sargon's western campaigns (Bagg, Assyrer und das Westland pp. 233–244 and maps 4.26–4.30.

96 The Aššur Prism, the Nineveh Prism, and the tablet fragment are all damaged and actually preserve specific mentions of only a few regnal years (Aššur Prism: 6th and 8th regnal years; Nineveh Prism: 8th and 9th regnal years; tablet fragment: 5th regnal year). While the Nineveh Prism dates the campaign against Karalla and Ellipi to the eighth regnal year, as opposed to the ninth regnal year in the Khorsabad Annals, it assigns the campaigns to Gurgum and against Iāmānī of Ashdod to Sargon's ninth regnal year (text no. 82 vii 13´–4´´´´), rather than to his eleventh regnal year as in the Annals. For the use of the term palû in Assyrian royal inscriptions and in those of Sargon in particular, see Tadmor, JCS 12 (1958) pp. 22–33 and Fuchs, SAAS 8 pp. 81–96.

97 For the various theories and for bibliographical references for them, see for example Elayi, Sargon II pp. 48–50 and note also various articles in the recent book Last Days (in particular the article by Frahm on pp. 55–86).

98 Text no. 1 lines 12b–18a (heavily restored from the following texts), text no. 7 lines 23b–25a, and text no. 74 iv 25–49. Text no. 1 lines 17b–18a assign the reopening of a sealed harbor in Egypt and the subsequent trading between Assyrians and Egyptians to Sargon's accession year (722), but this may have occurred later, possibly after the campaign to Gaza in his second year (Elayi, Sargon II p. 56) or in his sixth regnal year (Melville, Campaigns of Sargon pp. xv, 93 and 196). With regard to this trading post, see Ephʿal, Arabs pp. 101–104. For the reinstallation of Ḫullî, see text no. 1 lines 194a–198a and text no. 2 lines 226b–230a, where it is mentioned as having happened in the past. Note also May, SAAB 21 (2015) pp. 79–116 with regard to administrative changes in the reign of Sargon II (and also that of Tiglath-pileser III).

99 Note however Tadmor's suggestion that the line for 721 in the Assyrian Eponym Chronicle read "[Against the land Ḫatt]i"; however, he had assumed that that line was for 720, not 721 (see below).

100 See for example, text no. 1 lines 262b–268a, text no. 2 lines 287b–297a, text no. 3 lines 13´b–15´, and text no. 7 lines 121b–124a.

101 Text no. 1 lines 18b–23a. See also text no. 81 lines 1–4a, text no. 43 line 18, and text no. 76 line 11´, which also mention actions against a second tribe, the Tēša. Text no. 81 (Mosul Annals) places the episode involving the Tēša in the regnal year before the one in which the campaign against Hamath took place, although the regnal year number is not preserved for either event.

102 A Babylonian chronicle likely states that Assyria (or Sargon) was hostile towards Marduk-apla-iddina from his accession year until his tenth year (see below).

104 Frame, RIMB 2 p. 137 B.6.21.1 lines 16–18; note Brinkman in Studies Oppenheim pp. 14–15. See also text no. 7 line 23b.

103 Text nos.: 1 = Annals of Room II; 2 = Annals of Room V; 3 = Annals of Room XIII; 4 = Annals of Room XIV; 5 = Annals of the Throne Room; 6 = Annals of an Unknown Room; 63 = Aššur Prism; 81 = Mosul Annals; 82 = Nineveh Prism; 89 = Aššur Charter; 102 = Tablet Fragment A 16947; 117 = Najafabad Stele; AEC = Assyrian Eponym Chronicle; and BC = Babylonian Chronicle (Grayson, Chronicles no. 1).
If the regnal year in which an event occurred is mentioned in the text, the number of the regnal year is given. If the regnal year is not preserved but can be determined reliably due to the mention of a preceding or subsequent regnal year in the text, the number of the regnal year is given in square brackets. If the text preserves all or part of the account of the event (but does not mention the regnal year), it is given a check mark (✓). The Assyrian Eponym Chronicle assigns the indicated events to particular eponymies and these have been converted into regnal years.
An asterisk (*) means that the event is described after the account of Sargon's campaign in his thirteenth regnal year (709), with the first event thus indicated (military actions by the Assyria governor of Que against Musku) said to have been conducted while the king was occupied defeating the Chaldeans and Arameans of the Eastern Sea and fighting Elam (text no 1 lines 444b–445a and text no. 2 line 428a). For the most part, the year to which they are assigned here follows the views proposed by other recent scholars (in particular Fuchs), although some scholars have differing views. For example, Elayi (Sargon II p. 243) places the Que/Musku and Tyre/Cyprus events in 710–709 and 709 respectively, rather than in 708. The episode in the annals involving Kummuḫu, which is in the same section in the Khorsabad Annals, can be assigned to Sargon's fourteenth regnal year (708) because the Assyrian Eponym Chronicle states that that city was captured in that year.

105 Text no. 1 lines 23b–57, text no. 7 lines 25b–26 and 33–36a, text no. 73 line 8, text no. 81 lines 4b–20, text no. 84 lines 18´–20´, text no. 89 lines 17b–29, text no. 103 ii 51–65, text no. 105 ii´ 1´–12´, text no. 108 Frgm. D 1´–9´, and text no. 117 ii 4–13a. Likely also text no. 106. With regard to the Assyrian campaign in this year, see most recently Cogan, IEJ 67 (2017) pp. 151–167.

106 Text no. 1 lines 58–68a, text no. 4 lines 1´–6´a, text no. 7 lines 48 and 57, and text no. 117 ii 13b–16.

107 Text no. 1 lines 68b–71, text no. 4 lines 6´b–12´, text no. 7 lines 28–29a, text no. 74 iv 50–58, and text no. 117 ii 17–19.

108 Text no. 1 lines 72–78a, text no. 2 lines 69–70a, text no. 4 lines 13´–20´a, text no. 73, text no. 74 iv 13–24, text no. 102 line 2´–14´, text no. 109, and text no. 117 ii 20–22a. Note also text no. 1010.

109 Text no. 1 lines 78b–100, text no. 2 lines 70b–95a, text no. 4 lines 20´b–45´, text no. 7 lines 36b–42a, 49a, 50–51, 55–56 and 58–64a, text no. 63 i´ 1´–22´, text no. 74 ii 1–20´, text no. 82 iii 1´–12´´, text no. 102 line 15´, and text no. 117 ii 22b–71. See also text no. 72.

110 Text no. 63 ii´ 1´-11´ and no. 82 iii 1´´´–8´´´. It is not impossible that the people settled near the Brook of Egypt were people deported from Mannea and the Zagros region. Šilkanni may be Osorkon IV, the last ruler of Egypt's twenty-second dynasty; see Schwemer, PNA 3/2 pp. 1421–1422 sub Usilkanu 1.

111 Text no. 1 lines 101–126, text no. 2 lines 95b–101, text no. 7 lines 27, 44–45a, 49b, 52–54 and 64b–67a, text no. 63 ii´ 12´–25´, text no. 74 v 34–40, and text no. 82 iii 9´´´–17´´´.

112 See also text no. 1 lines 127–165a, text no. 2 lines 188–195a, text no. 7 lines 42b–43, 45b–47, 72b–78a (the suicide of Rusâ likely took place later, in 713), text no. 63 iii´ 1´–12´, text no. 74 iii 1–41, text no. 82 iv 1–v 6, and text no. 103 ii 39–50.

113 With regard to the Assyrian conquest of, and control over, Muṣaṣir, in particular after the eighth campaign, see Dubovsky, SAAB 15 (2006) pp. 141–146.

114 Text no. 1 lines 165b–204a, text no. 2 lines 195b–235, text no. 7 lines 29b–32 and 67b–72a, text no. 63 iii´ 13´–14´, text no. 74 iii 42–56 and v 13–33, text no. 82 v 7–vii 12´, and text no. 112.

115 Text no. 1 lines 204b–221, text no. 2 lines 236–259a, text no. 7 lines 78b–83a, text no. 74 v 41–75, and text no. 82 vii 1´´´´´–viii 15´. Mutallu of Kummuḫu must be distinguished from Mutallu son of Tarḫu-lara, who ruled Gurgum (see the eleventh regnal year [711]).

116 Text no. 1 lines 222–234a, text no. 2 lines 259b–267a, and text no. 82 viii 16´–17´.

117 Text no. 8 lines 10b–11a and text no. 74 v 41–75.

118 Text no. 1 lines 234b–262a, text no. 2 lines 267b–287a, text no. 3 lines 1´–13´a, text no. 7 lines 83b–109a, text no. 8 lines 11b–14, text no. 82 vii 13´–48´´ and possibly vii 1´´´–6´´´´, and no. 83 ii´ 1´–11´; note also text no. 104. The capture of Ashdod in 711 is likely the one mentioned in Isaiah 20:1, where it is stated that the Assyrian army was led by the field marshal (tartan) and not by the king himself. With regard to the eventual return of Iāmānī, see n. 126 below.

119 Text no. 1 lines 262b–390 (year 12) and 404–416 (year 13), text no. 2 lines 287b–371 (year 12) and 372–426a (year 13), text no. 3 lines 13´b– 60´ (year 12), text no. 5 lines 2´–3´ (year 12), text no. 6 lines 1´–14´ (year 13), text no. 7 lines 121b–144a (years 12–13), text no. 8 lines 18b–20a, text no. 9 lines 30b–34a, text no. 13 lines 45b–54a, text no. 64 lines 1´–12´, text no. 74 vi 14–85 and vii 7–19 (years 12–13 [also down to 707?]), text no. 83 ii´ 12–iii´ 13 (years 12–13), text no. 86 lines 2´–18´ (year 13), text no. 87 lines 3´–16´ (year 13), text no. 91 (year 12 and possibly year 13), text no. 103 iv 1–22 (year 13), text no. 111 lines 1´–9´ (year 13), text no. 113 lines 6´–27´ (years 12–13), and text no. 114 lines 1´–14´ (year 13). While some texts state that Marduk-apla-iddina was captured (text no. 7 lines 133–134a and text no. 74 vi 45–46; note also text no. 8 lines 18b–19a, text no. 9 lines 31b–32a, and text no. 13 lines 48b–49a, where the verb kašādu can mean both "conquer/defeat" and "capture"), the Khorsabad Annals of Room V (text no. 2 lines 402b–403) and the Babylonian chronicle say that he fled. The Annals version from an unknown room of the Khorsabad palace records that he submitted to Sargon's messenger and apparently gave tribute (text no. 6 lines 11´b–14´); this may indicate that this text was composed before the truth was known, and thus before text no. 2. These differing accounts were noted already back in 1916 by A.T.E. Olmstead (Historiography p. 57); see most recently Fuchs, Khorsabad p. 351 n. 479. Marduk-apla-iddina will reappear in opposition to Assyria in the reign of Sennacherib.

120 Text no. 1 lines 442b–444a, text no. 2 lines 426b–427, text no. 7 lines 144b–145a, text no. 8 lines 20b–21, text no. 9 lines 34b–35, text no. 13 lines 54b–59a, text no. 64 line 13´, text no. 74 vii 20–24a (Aḫundāra), text no. 87 line 17´, text no. 103 iv 23–27, and text no. 116 line 27 (Aḫundāra). Upēri may have brought his gifts in 710 (Sargon's twelfth regnal year) rather than 709 (Fuchs, Khorsabad p. 410) and Aḫundāra (presumably Upēri's successor as king) in or by 706 (Sargon's sixteenth regnal year), when text no. 74 was likely composed.

121 The granting of the privileges (e.g., šubarrû and andurāru) is mentioned in numerous texts of Sargon, often soon after the mention of his titles and epithets and in association with the mention of privileges also being granted to Aššur, Ḫarrān, and at times Dēr, or as part of descriptions of the defeat of Marduk-apla-iddina and conquest of Babylonia (e.g., text no. 7 lines 5b–12a and 136b–137a, and text no. 43 lines 4–6). With regard to the granting of andurāru by Neo-Assyrian kings, including Sargon, see Villard, RA 101 (2007) pp. 107–124.

122 Text no. 1 lines 444b–456a, text no. 2 lines 428–436a, and text no. 7 lines 149b–153a. The governor's actions and subsequent submission of Mitâ may have taken place in or around 710–709 and 708 respectively.

123 Text no. 1 lines 456b–467a, text no. 2 lines 436b–441a, text no. 7 lines 145b–149a, text no. 64 lines 14´–17´, text no. 74 vii 24b–44, text no. 87 lines 18´–21´, and text no. 103 iv 28–57. The gifts likely reached Sargon in Babylon in 708, although it is not impossible this happened in 709 or early in 707 before he returned to Assyria. Josephus (Jewish Antiquities 9.283–287) describes a five-year siege of Tyre during the reign of the Assyrian king who besieged and captured Samaria. The name of the king credited with these actions is written several ways in Josephus' Greek account (one way being Salmanassēs), but it is normally understood to refer to Shalmaneser (V). J. Elayi argues that the siege took place during the reign of Sargon, probably beginning in 709 and ending in 705, and that it was supervised by one of Sargon's officials (Sargon II pp. 67–72, 237–238, and 243). I am aware of no real evidence of such a siege in the cuneiform sources for either the reign of Shalmaneser V or that of Sargon II, although the Khorsabad Cylinder inscription does state somewhat ambiguously that Sargon "pacified" (ušapšiḫu) Tyre (text no. 43 line 21). While there are few contemporary sources for events during the reign of Shalmaneser V, there are a large number for the reign of Sargon and thus the lack of any mention of a siege of Tyre in them is worthy of note, even though the scribes of Sargon's official inscriptions might not have wished to mention an episode (siege) that had not been completed or that had failed in its objective. It must also be noted that Josephus was writing his account over seven hundred years after the time of Sargon and thus his version of events may not always be accurate. He does, however, state that he used information from Tyrian archives (via Menander) for his description of this episode.

124 Text no. 1 lines 467b–468, text no. 2 lines 441b–454, text no. 7 lines 112b–117a, text no. 74 iv 1–12 and text no. 84 lines 21´–27´; note also the Assyrian Eponym Chronicle entry for 708. Text no. 74 vii 45–76 describes the poor state of the road to Babylon and likely refers to the time in or around 708.

125 Text no. 2 lines 455–467a and text no. 7 lines 117b–121a.

126 The extradition of Iāmānī by the Nubian ruler Shebitko is mentioned as already having happened in an inscription composed in the following year (text no. 116 lines 19–21; note also text no. 113 lines 1´–5´). For the return of Iāmānī, see also text no. 7 lines 109b–112a, text no. 8 lines 11b–14, and text no. 83 ii´ 1–11. Note A. Fuchs' discussion of this episode in SAAS 8 pp. 124–131.

127 See in particular lines 37–44.

128 As noted by previous scholars, "Gurdî, the Kulummian," may be the same person as Kurtî of Atuna, who is mentioned in accounts of events in Sargon's fourth and eleventh regnal years.

129 Livingstone, SAA 3 no. 33, especially lines 8´-9´ and 19´–20´.

Grant Frame

Grant Frame, 'Military Campaigns', RINAP 2: Sargon II, Sargon II, The RINAP 2 sub-project of the RINAP Project, 2021 [http://oracc.org/rinap/rinap2/rinap2introduction/militarycampaigns/]