Economic relations, both in the form of formally established "unequal exchange" (tribute) and "parithetic exchange" of goods (trade), constituted a tight link between minor states and empires.
The mountain area northeast and east of Assyria was the prime breeding ground for horses, and tribute from that area was essentially composed of such animals. The crown prince of Andia could bring, probably as tribute, up to 51 equids (no. 171). Cattle and sheep were, however, not disregarded either. In no. 133, the king of Hubuškia brings to Assyria a tribute of this kind; in no. 136, Urzana of Muṣaṣir is reported to be on his way to Arbela with 56 horses and a good number of oxen and sheep.
The numbers of tribute animals mentioned in our letters are in general not particularly high, which makes it understandable that refusal to bring tribute was felt more as an ideological offence than as an economic loss. In no. 146, Urzana excuses himself for not being able to come with his tribute because of snow probably on the very occasion which 'justified' Sargon's attack on Muṣaṣir: "Urzana of Muṣaṣir ... not submissive to my lordship ... did not embrace my feet with his heavy gift, and withheld his tribute and gift."[[29]]
Trade was the vital medium to acquire quality goods generally not obtainable through war (booty) or tribute and gifts. In the Assyrian empire, trade was carried on both by governmental authorities and licensed merchants, who enjoyed royal protection and were aided by local administrators. Rather surprisingly, trade of horses, probably considered a matter of nobility, appears to have been carried on even by foreign royalty: in no. 169, the king of Zikirtu is expected to sell horses to an Assyrian official, who deposits the money needed for the trans action in a stronghold.
Timber was probably also considered a commodity to be dealt with by royalty. According to no. 33, both Urarṭian and Šubrian kings objected to selling timber cut in their territories to the Assyrians. Evidently timber, like horses, was considered royal property, which would underscore the value of this material, particularly in view of its total lack in Mesopotamia. A royal timber monopoly thus seems not to be ruled out.
While merchants went around searching for horses in the east (nos. 208 and 224), unofficial trade was carried on locally. An interesting example of a routine infringement of custom duties is offered by no. 100, a letter which deals with smuggling of goods between Urarṭu and Assyria. Kummeans smugglers are reported to have bought precious merchandise in the Assyrian capitals, carried them to Kumme, and then sold it in Urarṭu, bringing back other precious goods to be sold in Assyria. Aššur-rešuwa, the author of this letter, asks for their arrest and thorough examination. This text casts an unexpected ray of light on the constant ineffectiveness of borders vis-a-vis people's economic needs — a picture totally "blacked out" in the official records of Mesopotamia.[[30]]
29 TCL 3, 309-312.
30For a similar example, or perhaps the very same situation, cf. SAA I 46.
Giovanni B. Lanfranchi
Giovanni B. Lanfranchi, 'Economic Relations', The Correspondence of Sargon II, Part II: Letters from the Northern and Northeastern Provinces, SAA 5. Original publication: Helsinki, Helsinki University Press, 1990; online contents: SAAo/SAA05 Project, a sub-project of MOCCI, 2020 [http://oracc.org/saao/saa05/empireandminorstates/economicrelations/]