Before proceeding further, let us pause for a moment to have a look at the sources themselves. Rather than skimming through all the available references, we shall concentrate on a few paradigmatic examples only, selected to illustrate different types of treaties in their historical contexts. The function of treaties in Neo-Assyrian imperial policies will, we believe, emerge clearly from even these few examples. We shall begin with a treaty with Elam, Assyria's perennial foe on the southeastern frontier. The background of this treaty, concluded between Esarhaddon (of Assyria) and Urtaku (of Elam) in 674 B.C., is described in Assyrian royal inscriptions as follows:
"The Elamite and the Gutian, obstinate kings whose relations with my royal forefathers had been inimical, heard of the might of Assur that I had displayed to all enemies; fear overcame them, and in order to keep the border of their countries unviolated they dispatched their messengers of friendship and peace (ša ṭūbi u sulummê) to me to Nineveh and swore an oath by the great gods." (Borger Esarh. p. 58f.)
The passage refers to two kings, but nothing is known of a treaty with a "Gutian" king. On the other hand, the Elamite peace initiative is confirmed by a contemporary oracle query (AGS 76). A later letter (CT 54 580) shows that the treaty was preceded by intensive negotiations:
"A message from the Crown Prince to Šulmu-ahu: The king of Elam and the king of Assyria, having repeatedly consulted with each other, have by the command of Marduk made peace with one another (isselmū) and become treaty partners (bēl adê ša ahāmiš)."[[4]]
Note that the treaty is here explicitly identified as an adê, and compare the phrasing of the royal inscription, which simply shows that a sworn agreement was in question. Both the letter and the inscription speak of a peace treaty. One could also call it a nonaggression pact, as the motive behind the Elamite peace drive clearly was fear of an Assyrian invasion. That such a pact was of interest to Assyria too is made patently clear by the following letter passage, referring to the very treaty in question:
"Last year when the Palace Superintendent and the Magnates went down to Chaldea, the brothers of the king of Elam tried to incite their brother the king, saying: 'Let us gather an army, cross over to Chaldea and take it away from Assyria.' The king of Elam, however, did not sin, but refused to listen to them, saying: 'I shall not violate the treaty (adê)."' (ABL 328: 9-15.)
Even though the treaty itself has not been preserved, there is every reason to believe that it was fully bilateral. A piece of correspondence between the contracting kings (ABL 918) implies that they went so far as to exchange children to make sure that the treaty terms would be kept. Note the care taken in the letter to convey a tone of absolute equality:
"A letter from Esarhaddon, king of Assyria, to Urtaku, king of Elam, my brother: I am well, your sons and daughters are well, my country and magnates are well. May Urtaku, king of Elam, my brother, be well, may my sons and daughters be well, may your magnates and your country be well.
"Now that the gods Aššur, Sin, Šamaš, Bel, Nabû, Ištar of Nineveh, lštar of Arbela and Manziniri have completed and stabilized what they promised ..."
To summarize briefly, we have here an indisputable case of a fully bilateral treaty between Assyria and another major power, referred to as (adê) in contemporary letters and as a "peace and friendship" treaty in the royal inscriptions. The treaty was sworn, confirmed by an exchange of children between the contracting parties, and evidently meant to last. In fact, it did last for ten years, and when it was finally broken, this came as a total surprise to the Assyrian party:
"On my 6th campaign I marched against Urtaku, king of Elam, who had forgotten the favours (ṭābtu) of my father and did not guard my friendship... The Elamite, whose attack I had never seriously considered and whose hostility I did not suspect..." (Streck Asb p. 105.)
4 The crown prince figuring in this letter may be either Assurbanipal or Šamaš-šumu-ukin. In either case, the letter dates from 672-669 B.C.
Simo Parpola
Simo Parpola, 'Nonaggression Pacts', Neo-Assyrian Treaties and Loyalty Oaths, SAA 2. Original publication: Helsinki, Helsinki University Press, 1988; online contents: SAAo/SAA02 Project, a sub-project of MOCCI, 2020 [http://oracc.org/saao/saa02/treatiesasinstrumentsofimperialism/nonaggressionpacts/]